Julian calendar

Motivation
The current year in the previous Roman calendar consisted of 12 months, for a total of 355 days. In addition, one month interlayer 27 days, the intercalaris mensis was inserted in times between February and March. This intercalary month was formed by inserting 22 days after the first 23 or 24 days of February, five days of February, countdown to the beginning of March, five days intercalaris. The effect was to add 22 or 23 days for the year, forming a leap year of 377 or 378 days.
According to later writers Censorinus and Macrobius, the ideal cycle includes intercalated years 355 days regular alternating with intercalary years, alternately 377 and 378 days. In this system, the average Roman year would have 366 days in four years giving it an average drift one day per year, compared solstice or equinox at all. Macrobius describes a further refinement in which, for 8 years, 24, intercropping had only three years, each of 377 days. This refinement of the average year length of 365 days over 24 years. In practice, intercalations did not occur schematically according to these ideal systems, but are determined by the pontiffs. As can be determined from the evidence historically, they were much less suggest that these systems Regular ideals. It is usually held every second or third year, but sometimes omitted for much longer, and sometimes in two consecutive years.
If managed correctly this system allowed the Roman year, on average, about a year to stay aligned tropical. However, since the experts were often political, and because the mandate of a Roman magistrate office responded with a calendar year, this authority has been of abuse: a pope could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies in power, or refuse to renew the one in which their opponents were in the power. If too many intercalations omitted, as happened after the Second Punic War and during the civil wars, the calendar is quickly drift out of alignment with the tropical year. Moreover, since intercalations were often determined later, the Roman often do not know the date, especially if it was some distance from the city. For these reasons, in recent years of the pre-Julian calendar were later known as the "years of confusion." The problems are particularly acute in the years of the pontificate of Julius Caesar before the reform, BC 6346, when there were only five intercalary months, then there should be eight years, and not all during the years in Rome, five years before 46 BC. For example, Caesar crossed the Rubicon January 10, 1949 BC to the official calendar, but the official schedule had drifted so far this season he did in mid-autumn.
The reform seeks to correct this problem permanently, by creating a calendar that aligns with the sun without any human intervention.
Julian reform
The first stage of reform has been to realign the beginning of the calendar year (January 1) to tropical year by 46.445 days of time to compensate for this intermingling had been interrupted during the reign of Caesar. This year had already been extended 355-378 days for the insertion of a regular intercalary months in February. When Caesar decreed the reform, probably shortly after his return from the campaign Africa in the final quintiles (July), added 67 (= 22 + 23 + 22) or more days by inserting two extraordinary intercalary months between November and December. These months are called intercalaris before and after the letters of Cicero intercalaris writing at the time, there is no basis for the statement as they were sometimes called "Unodecember" and "Duodecember. [Edit] Its length is unknown, as is the position of the nones ides and within them. Because the 46 BC was the latest in a series of irregular years, this year has been unusually long, and is called "The last year of confusion." The first year of the new calendar was 45 BC.
Julian Months formed by the addition of ten days to one year of pre-Julian Roman normal 355 days, creating a regular Julian year of 365 days: Two extra days were included in Ianuarius, Sextilis (August) and December, and an extra day was added to április, June, September and November, setting the months lengths by the values that continue today:
Month
Lengths before 45 BC
Lengths of 45 a. C.
Ianuarius
29
31
Februarius
28 (leap year: 23 or 24)
28 (leap year: 29)
Martius
31
31
Április
29
30
Majus
31
31
Junius
29
30
Quintilis (July)
31
31
Sextilis (Augusto)
29
31
September
29
30
October
31
31
November
29
30
December
29
31
Intercalaris
0 years leap (: 27)
(Inserted between shortcuts
February and March)
(Deleted)
Macrobius says that the extra days were added immediately before the last day of each month to avoid disturbing the position of the Roman Fasti established (days prescribed for certain events) in relation to the beginning of the month. However, from Rome dates after the Ides of the month running towards the beginning of next month, days had the additional effect of increasing the initial count value a day after the Ides. Romans born after the era of the Ides of a month have reacted different in the sense of this change on their birthdays. Marc-Antoine maintains his 14th birthday Ianuarius, which changed its announcement date XVII Kal. February ad XIX Kal. February, a date that never existed. Livia Birthday Given the date of the announcement unchanged at III Kal. February, raising the 28th and 30th Ianuarius a day had not existed. Augustus was the 23rd day of September, but both the old date (ad VIII Kal. October) and new (ad IX Kal. October) is celebrated in some places.
The old intercalary month was deleted. The leap day is a date at Sextum Kalenda Martias diem, usually abbreviated ad VI Kal Aa. Mart. Where it is called in English the leap day. The year that took place was called annus bissextus, leap year in English.
There is debate about the exact position of the leap day at the beginning the Julian calendar. The first direct evidence is a declaration of the first century, Celsus, jurist, who said he had two halves of a day of 48 hours and that was the day leap "after" average. An inscription marking the year 168 ad V Kal. Mart. It was the day after the jump. The 19th century argued chronologist Ideler Celso used the term "downstream" in a technical way of referring to the first of two days, which requires registration refer to the day of 48 hours as the leap year. Some historians share this view. Others, after Mommsen, consider Celso you were using the ordinary American (and English) meaning of "later." A third view is that neither half of the 48 hours "Sextum bis" was formally declared as layers, but there is a need to make the concept of a day of 48 hours has become obsolete.
There is no doubt that the leap day was the first of two days. In 238 Censorinus said that was inserted after Terminalia (February 23) and was followed by five days of February, IEAD VI, V, IV, III and PRID. Kal. Mart. (This would be the 24 days of February 28 in a normal year and 25 at the 29th time a leap year). Thus it is thought the first half of bissextum days doubled. All later writers, including about 430 Macrobius Venerable Bede in 725, and other reports medieval (calculators of Easter), followed this rule, as well as the liturgical calendar of the Catholic Church to 1970.
During medieval days late in the month came to be numbered in the order consecutive days. Therefore, the leap day was considered as the last day February leap year, ie February 29, which is his current position.
Leap Year Error
Although the new calendar was much simpler than the calendar Pre-Julian, it seems, experts misunderstood the algorithm for leap years. They added a leap day once every three years instead of every four years. According to Macrobius the mistake was the result of having inclusive, for the four-year cycle was considered both the first and fourth year. This resulted in too many leap days. Augusto remedy this anomaly after 36 years, restoring the correct frequency. Also skipped several leap days in order to rebalance the year. Once this reform AD has been completefter 8 latesthe Roman calendar was the same as the proleptic Julian calendar.
The historic sequence of leap years in this period is not explicitly given by an ancient source, despite the existence of the cycle of leap years every three years is confirmed by an inscription that dates from 9 or 8 BC. The chronologist Joseph Scaliger established in 1583 that the Augustan reform was instituted in August a. C. and inferred that the sequence of leap years, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12, 9 a. C., year 8, 12, etc. This proposal is still the most widely accepted. It is sometimes suggested the existence of an extra day in leap the first year of the Julian reform, ie, 45 in British Columbia was also a leap year.
Other solutions have been proposed from time to time. Kepler proposed In 1614, the same material used by Scaliger, that the correct sequence of leap years was 43, 40, 37, 34, 31, 28, 25, 22, 19, 16, 13, 10 a. C., year 8, 12, etc. In 1883 the German chronologist Matzat proposed 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11 a. C., AD 4, 8, 12, etc. based on a passage of Dion Casio, who mentions a leap day in 41 a. C. was said otherwise (Caesar) rule. In the 1960s Radke argued the reform was actually instituted when Augustus became pontifex maximus in 12 a. C., suggesting the sequence 45, 42, 39, 36, 33, 30, 27, 24, 21, 18, 15, 12 a. C., year 4, 8, 12, etc. With all these solutions, except that of Radke, the Roman calendar was not finally aligned to the Julian calendar for later until 25 February (ad V Kal. March) AD 4. Radke, dissolved in the two calendars were aligned on 25 February 1 BC.
In 1999, an Egyptian papyrus was published which gives an ephemeris table for 24 in British Columbia in both Roman and Egyptian dates. Roman dates are not aligned with one of these solutions. It is proposed to solve this problem is fifth three-year sequence: 44, 41, 38, 35, 32, 29, 26, 23, 20, 17, 14, 11, 8 BC, AD 4, 8, 12, etc, very close to that proposed by Matzat. In this sequence, the standard break sequence Julian of years began in April, the 12th year of the reform of Augustus and the Roman calendar eventually sided with the Julian calendar in 1 BC (with EA 1, the first full year of compliance), as in the model of Radke. In this work, the Roman year also coincided with the proleptic years between 32 and 26 in Columbia British Julien, suggesting that one of the objectives of the realignment portion of the Augustan reform was to ensure the key dates in his career, including fall of Alexandria on August 1, 1930 a. C., were affected by the correction. Roman also dates between 45 and 32 in British Columbia as the days generally one or two days before the Julian date, hence the January 1 in the Roman calendar the first year the Julian reform of December 31, 1946 a. C. (Julian date). A curious effect of this is that the assassination of Caesar on the Ides (15th) fell Marzo March 14, 1944 a. C. in the Julian calendar.
Month names
Immediately after the Julian reform, the Roman calendar of twelve months named Ianuarius, Februarius, Martius, április, Maius, Junius, Quintiles, Sextilis, September, October, November and December as they were before the reform. The old intercalary month, the intercalaris mensis was deleted and replaced by a single intercalary day at the same point (ie five days before the end of Februarius). The first month of Ianuarius remained as it had been since 153 BC.
The Romans renamed the month of Julius Caesar and Augustus, renaming Quintiles (originally, "the fifth month, with March =), Julius (July) 44 a. C. and Sextilis (sixth month) as Augustus (August) at 8 in British Columbia. Quintilis was renamed in honor of Caesar, because it was month of birth. A Senatufconfultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed in honor of Augustus because several of the most significant events of his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell during the month.
Other months were renamed by other emperors, but apparently none of the changes later, survived his death. Caligula renamed September ("Seventh month") as Germanicus, Nero renamed április (April) Neroneus, Maius (May) as Claudius and Junius (June) as Germanicus and Domitian renamed September as Germanicus and October ("Eighth month") that Domitian. At other times, it was renamed in September also as Antoninus and Tacitus, and November ("Ninth month") was named Faustina and Romanus. Commodus was unique in renaming the twelve months adopted its own name (January-December): Amazonius, Invictus, Felix Pius, Lucius, Aelius, Aurelius, Commodus, Augustus, Herculeus, Roman, and Exsuperatorius.
Much more enduring than fleeting month names of Roman emperors by Augustus were the names introduced by Charlemagne. He renamed all the months of agriculture in the Old High German. They have been used for the 15th century, more than 700 years after his reign, and continued with little change until the late 18th century Germany and the Netherlands Netherlands. The names (January to December) were Wintarmanoth winter months (), Hornung (the month in which the male deer lose their antlers), Lentzinmanoth (Lent months) Ostarmanoth (Easter month), Wonnemanoth (months to make love), Brachmanoth (months tillage), Heuvimanoth (hay month), Aranmanoth (months after harvest) Witumanoth (Wood month), Windumemanoth (vintage month), Herbistmanoth (autumn / harvest month), and Heilagmanoth (holy month).
The names of Roman origin as is set at 8 in British Columbia are still in use in North Africa, where farmers use Berber Julian calendar in everyday life. It Yenna speaks today, Febrer, Mars, Ibril, May, Yuniu, Yulius, Ghusht, Shutambir, Ktuber, Nuwambir, with local variations Dujanbir also often used in Arabic classical and medieval Arabic texts relating to the solar calendar month.
Numbering Year
The dominant method the Romans used to identify the year for the same purpose was to name the two consuls who took office in it. -153 Since taking office on January 1, and Julius Caesar did not change the start the year. So this year was a year or consular named the same name. In addition to consular years, the Romans sometimes used the year of the reign of the Emperor and at the end of the fourth century documents were also based on the date of the 15-year cycle of the proclamation. In 537, Justinian requires that henceforth, the date must include the emperor's name and the year of his reign, and most of the proclamation and the consul, while allowing the use of these local auctions.
In 309 and 310, and from time to time thereafter, they were appointed consuls. When this happened, the date received several consular years since the last consul (called "post-consular quotations). After 541, the reigning emperor held the consulate general for one year during his reign, and therefore post-consular dates became the norm. Similar-consular dates are also known in the West during the Sixth. The consular system of appointments, now obsolete, was officially abolished in the code of law of Leon VI, published in 888.
It is rare that the Romans number the year of the founding of the city (of Rome), AB city condita (AUC). This method has been used by Roman historians to determine the number of years from one event to another and that this day one year. Different historians have different dates for the foundation. The Fasti Capitoline, an inscription containing an official list of consuls which was published by Augustus, used an epoch of 752 BC. The time used by Varro, A. 753 C., has been adopted by modern historians. Indeed, Renaissance editors often added to the manuscripts published, giving the false impression that Romans numbered their years. Most modern historians tacitly assume that began the day the consul came to power, and ancient documents such as the Capitoline Fasti which use other AUC systems do the same. However, Censorinus written in the third century AD, said that at the time, the year began with the Parilia AUC, held April 21, which was regarded as the anniversary of the founding of Rome. Due to the festivities Parilia inconsistency with the solemnity of Lent was observed until the Saturday before Easter Sunday, the Roman Church does not celebrate Easter after 21 April.
While Julian reform applied originally in the Roman calendar, most of the other calendars then used in the Roman Empire were aligned with the reformed calendar under Augustus. This led to the adoption premises for several hours the Julian calendar, such as age Actium and the Spanish era, some of which have been used for a considerable time. Perhaps the best known is the era of the martyrs, sometimes called Anno Diocletian (after Diocletian), which was often used by Christians in Alexandria in the numbers Easter in the fourth and fifth centuries, and is being used by the Coptic and Ethiopian churches, but also to sensitize the Modern Ethiopian agenda.
In the Mediterranean East, the efforts of Christians and chronographs Annianus of Alexandria at the time of the biblical creation the world has led to the introduction of Anno Mundi times of this event. The most important of these was the kosmou Etos used anywhere in the Byzantine world of the 10th century and in Russia until 1700. In the West, Dionysius the Small proposed the system of Anno Domini, in 525. This period was gradually extended along the western Christian world, once the system has been adopted by Bede.
Day New Year
The Roman calendar began years on 1 January, and this is still the beginning of the year after the Julian reform. However, even after that conform to local calendars Julian calendar, which began the new year on different dates. The timing of Alexandria in Egypt began on 29 August (August 30, after an Alexandrian leap year). Several provincial local calendars were aligned to start on the birthday of Augustus on September 23. The indiction caused the Byzantine years, which used the Julian calendar, which begins September 1, this date is still used in Eastern Orthodox Church for the beginning of the year liturgy. When the Julian calendar was adopted in 988 by Vladimir I of Kiev, the year was numbered Anno Mundi 6496, from 01 March, six months after beginning of the Byzantine Anno Mundi with the same amount. In 1492 (AM 7000), Ivan III, according to church tradition, realigned the beginning of the year on 1 September so am 7000 lasted only six months Russia, from March 1 to August 31, 1492.
In the Middle East Date January 1 retained the name of the new year (or an equivalent name) in all Western European countries (affiliated to the Roman Catholic Church), since the medieval calendar continued to display the months of January to December (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), and the Romans. However, most of these countries began their numbered years, December 25 (Nativity of Jesus) 25 March (the Incarnation of Jesus), or Easter, as in France (see article on the liturgical calendar for details).
In England, even before 1752, January 1 was sometimes considered as the start of the campaign for the new Pepys while the "year from March 25 was called to legal responsibility" Year. To avoid any misunderstanding about the date, it was not uncommon in the records of the parish to a new year heading after 24 March, for example, 1661 for another position in the end the following December indicating "1661-1662." This was to explain to the reader that the year was 1661 and 1662 Old Style New Style.
Most of Western European countries moved first day of their year number on January 1 when they were still using the Julian calendar, before it is adopted Gregorian calendar, many during the 16th century. The following table shows the years in which various countries adopted January 1 as the beginning of the year. Country in Eastern Europe, with populations showing allegiance to the Orthodox Church, began the year on 1 September, approximately 988.
Country
Start Year
January 1
Adoption
new calendar
Venetian Republic
1522
1582
San Roman Empire
1544
1582
Spain, Portugal
1556
1582
Prussia, Denmark / Norway
1559
1700
Sweden
1559
1753
France
1564
1582
Countries South Holland
1576
1582
Lorena
1579
1760
Holland, Zeeland
1583
1582
Dutch Republic, with the exception
Holland and Zeeland
1583
1700
Scotland
1600
1752
Russia
1700
1918
Tuscany
1721
1750
British Empire outside Scotland
1752
1752
Serbia
1804 [edit]
1918
theory of the lengths of the months Debunked
Julian reform set the duration of the months to their modern values. However, a scholar of the 13th century Sacrobosco proposed a different explanation for the lengths of months Julian is still widely repeated but is certainly wrong. For Sacrobosco, the original system for the month in the Julian Calendar was very regular, alternately long and short. From January to December, the month lengths according Sacrobosco Roman Republican calendar were:
30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29, 30, 29.
He then said that Julius Caesar added a day every month except February, a total of 11 days, giving the year of 365 days. Now a leap day be added to the extra short February:
31, 29/30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 30.
He then said Augustus changed to this:
31, 28/29, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31, 31, 30, 31, 30, 31
so that the length of Augustus would not be less (and therefore less than) the length of Iulius, giving us the lengths of the months are irregular still in use.
Here is plenty of evidence that refutes this theory. First, a mural Roman calendar before the Julian reform has survived, which confirms the literary accounts that the months were already irregular before Julius Caesar's reform:
29, 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29, 29.
Moreover, the reform does not change the dates Julian the Nones and Ides. In particular, the Ides were late (15 instead of 13) in March, May, July and October, these months always had 31 days in the Roman calendar, whereas the theory requires Sacrobosco March, May and July were initially 30 days long and the time it was changed from October 29 to 30 days and 31 days of Caesar Augustus. In addition, it is explicitly contradicted Sacrobosco with the third and fifth century authors Censorinus and Macrobius, and is incompatible with seasonal lengths given by Varro, writing in 37 BC, before Augusto reform Sextilis with 31 days given by the Egyptian papyrus of 24 new British Columbia, and 28 days was recorded in February Caeretani Fasti, which is earlier 12 av.
Since Julian Gregorian
Main article: Gregorian Calendar
The Julian calendar used in Europe and North Africa since the time of the Roman Empire until 1582, when Pope Gregory XIII promulgated the Gregorian calendar. The reform was necessary because too many leap days added about astronomical stations in the Julian system. On average, the astronomical solstices and equinoxes advance of about 11 minutes per year from a Julian year. Consequently, the expected date for Easter gradually been out of phase with the March equinox. Sosigenes While Hipparchus and presumably were aware of the gap, but not its value correct, it obviously felt as minor when the Julian reform. However, it has accumulated over time: the Julian calendar gained a day about every 134 years. In 1582, was ten days out of alignment from where it was intended in 325 during the Council of Nicea.
The Gregorian calendar was adopted very soon by most Catholic countries (Spain, Portugal, Poland, most of Italy.) Protestant countries followed later, and adopted countries of Eastern Europe Calendar "new" again later. In the British Empire (including the American colonies), Wednesday, September 2 1752 was followed by Thursday, September 14, 1752. For 12 years from 1700 Sweden used a modified Julian calendar and adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, but Russia remained on the Julian calendar until 1918 (now February 1, 1918 February 14), after the Russian Revolution (which is called "Revolution October "if it occurred in Gregorian November), while Greece continued to use until 1924. Meanwhile, the Julian calendar continued to diverge from the Gregorian. In 1700, the difference becomes 11 days in 1800, 12, and in 1900, 13, where he remained until 2100.
Orthodox use
Russian icon of the Theophany (January 6) Feast of the highest rank that binds to the top of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.
Although all Eastern Orthodox (most of them in the East or South-Europe) have adopted the calendar "new" in 1927, their national churches do not. Calendar "New" was proposed during a synod in Constantinople in May 1923 established a solar part has been and will be the same as the Gregorian calendar until 2800 and part of the Moon, which calculates the Passover (Easter) Astronomical Jerusalem. All Orthodox churches refused to accept the lunar part, so almost all Orthodox churches continue to celebrate Easter on the Julian calendar (with the exception of the Estonian Orthodox Church and the Orthodox Church of Finland who are allowed to observe the Gregorian Easter). [Citation needed]
The solar part of the new timetable has been accepted one part of the Orthodox churches. Those who do not accept, hoping to improve dialogue and negotiations with the Western denominations, were the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, Greek Orthodox Churches, Cyprus, Romania, Poland, Bulgaria (the last in 1963), and the Orthodox Church in America (Although some OCA parishes are permitted to use the Julian calendar). Therefore, these churches to celebrate the Nativity, the same day that Western Christians do, until 25 December 2800 Gregorian. The Orthodox Churches of Jerusalem, Russia, Serbia, Georgia, Ukraine and ancient Greek Calendarists and other groups are using the calendar Julian is celebrated as the Nativity Julian December 25 (that is until January 7 Gregorian 2100). The Russian Orthodox Church has a few parishes in the West celebrate the Nativity December 25 Gregorian. The Parishes of Bulgarian Orthodox Church in America Diocese, both before and after the transfer of the diocese in 1976 in the Russian Orthodox Church outside of the Russian Orthodox Church in America, has been authorized to use the Gregorian date December 25. Some groups that oppose the state Old Calendarist of the churches in his country the use of the great feast of the Epiphany (January 6 January Julian/19 Gregorian) as a day for religious processions and the Great Blessing Water, to make known their ref [case. Necessary]
The Eastern Orthodox churches generally use the local calendar in their country of origin. However, when calculating Nativity of the party over the Julian calendar. This has been traditionally used for the sake of the unity of all Christendom. In the West, some Eastern Orthodox churches, or use the Gregorian calendar or are allowed to observe the Nativity in accordance with it. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church celebrates the Nativity of the part of the Feast of the Epiphany on the calendar traditional. [Citation needed]
Berber calendar
In North Africa, the Julian calendar (calendar Berber) is still used for agricultural purposes, and fellh called "peasant" or not acjam "Arab." The first is to currently Yennayer until 14 January 2100.
See also
Comput
The conversion between the Julian and Gregorian calendars
Sunday Letter
Easter week
Julian days
Julian year (astronomy)
Mixed-style Date
Published Julian calendar
Week
Notes
↑ See Miriam Nancy Shields, "The new calendar of the Eastern Churches," Popular Astronomy 32 (1924) 407-411 (page 411). This is a translation of M. Milankovitch "The end of the Julian calendar and the new calendar of the Eastern churches" Astronomische Nachrichten No. 5279 (1924).
L ^ P. Luhl, the proposal for a common date to celebrate Easter and Easter (Orthodox Center).
^ Towards a date Easter common. (510 March). World Council of Churches and the Council of Churches Consulting Middle East, Aleppo, Syria.
^ Blackburn, B. Holford-Strevens & L. The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press, 1999, reprinted with corrections 2003. P. 669-70.
^ Abcde The letter J was not invented until the 16th century.
^ W Sternkopf, "Das Bissextum (JCP 41 (1895) 718 733) available.
^ Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States. (1961). Supplement to the London Ephemeris reasons: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. P. 4101.
^ Chris Bennett, the AUC 709 = 45 a. C. (Three-year cycle of leap years)
^ AR Jones, "Calendrics II: Equations date from the reign of Augustus," SPA 129 (2000) 159-166, available at
^ Chris Bennett, AUC 730 = -24 (papyrus), see also CJ Bennett, "Early Augustan Calendars in Rome and Egypt," SPA 142 (2003) 221-240 and "The calendars early Augustan Rome and Egypt: additions and Corrections "ZEPA 147 (2004) 165-168.
AD 354 ^ Chronographe
^ Charles W. Jones, "the development of Latin ecclesiastical calendar" Temporibus Beda Opera (1943), 1122, p.28.
^ (The history of the calendar in Russia and the USSR)
http://www.pepysdiary.com/archive/1661/12/31/index.php ^ Pepys Diary "I sat down to adjust the end my day this year …"
^ Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style dates and the calendar change Gregorian.
^ Spathaky, Mike Old Style New Style Dates and the change of the Gregorian calendar. "The bar is by far the most common indicator, but sometimes Alternative figures at year end are written above and below a horizontal line, as in a small part (a form that can easily be reproduced here ASCII text.) Rarely a hyphen is used, as 1733-34. "
John J. ^ Bond, "The beginning of the year," Handy-book of rules and tables to check the dates of the Christian Era (London: 1875), 91 101.
^ Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style and the change of dates in the Gregorian calendar: An overview for genealogists
^ The source has Germany, whose current area during the sixteenth century was a big part of the Holy Roman Roman Empire, a confederation divided religious. The source is not clear as to whether all or only part of the country has made the switch. In In general, Roman Catholic countries made the change a few decades before Protestant countries did.
^ Sweden conversion is complex and required a lot of the first half of the 18th century. View the Swedish calendar.
^ Decree June 16, 1575. Grotefend Hermann, "Osteranfang" (Easter) Deutsche Zeitrechnung Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Chronology old East Germany and Modern Times) (18911898)
^ 1751 in England lasted from March: 25-31 December. The following dates of January 1 to March 24, 1751 concluded that became part 1752, the beginning of the year number has been changed 1 January to 25 March.
^ Roscoe Lamont, "the Roman calendar reform of Julius Caesar", Astronomy People 27 (1919) 583 595. Sacrobosco theory is discussed on pages 585 587.
^ Roman Republican Calendar
^ Nautical Almanac Office UK and the United States, the reasons Supplement ephemeris ephemerides astronomy and America and the Nautical Almanac (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1961), 4136.
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Mind the sense of time chronometry Reaction time specious present
Sociology and Anthropology
Futures studies Long Now Foundation discipline schedule research time
Economy
Newton in time economic value of money Time Banking currency function of time
Related topics
Time in Space Time Travel Time Capsule Time Metric Signature long time Hexadecimal time Carpe diem Tempus fugit
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Time measurement and standards
Main topics
Chronometry Time Magnitude of metrology
Time portal
International standards
UTC UT TAI ISO 31-1 DUT1 Leap second IERS Terrestrial Time Geocentric Coordinate Time barycentric coordinate the timing time clock time of 12 hours 24 hours ISO 8601 International Date Line Solar time Time zone Daylight Saving Time compensation
outdated standards
Barycentric Ephemeris Time Greenwich Mean Time Dynamic Meridian Prime Time
Time in physics
Spacetime Chronon Cosmological decade Planck epoch Planck time T-symmetry theory of relativity Time dilation Gravitational time dilation correct time to coordinate the continuous time domain with time discrete absolute time, space and time
Watches
Atomic Clock Clock Hourglass Marine chronometer Radio Astrarium Sundial Watch Water devices History Eq timing clock Hourglass Marine Weather complication
Calendar
Astronomical Julian Gregorian Islamic lunar intercalation epact tropical lunisolar years leap year Equinox Solstice Solar seven days a week the names of the days Calculating the day of the week Dominical letter
Archaeology and geology
International Commission on Stratigraphy archaeological dating Geologic Time
Astronomical chronology
Nuclear time scale Precession Sidereal time Galactic year
Time Units
Second half Minute Hour Day Week Month Year Decade Century Millennium Jiffy Marea Shake saeculum Lustro
Related topics
Chronology Duration System time Metric time Mental chronometry Time value of money Timekeeper
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Chronology
The main issues
Time Astronomy Geology Paleontology Archaeology History
Chronology Portal
The periods and times
Calendar Eras: Ab Urbe condita Anno Domini / Common Era Anno Mundi Byzantine era Before Present Hijri Spanish Egyptian Sothic cycle of Indian Hindu units as Yugas
regnal year: Canon of Kings King lists Limmu Seleucid era
Era name: Chinese Japanese Korean Vietnamese
Calendars
Pre-Julian Roman Original Julian proleptic Julian Revised Julian
Gregorian proleptic Gregorian Old Style and New Style
luni-solar cycle Solar Lunar Islamic Chinese sexagesimal
astronomical year numbering ISO week date
astronomical time
and technical
Astronomical Calendar Ephemeris Galactic cosmic chronology years Metonic cycle Milankovitch cycles
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and technical
Deep time Geological history Geological time units: Time periods eons dating Eras Standards: GSSP GSSA
Geochronology Isotope geochemistry Law Chronostratigraphy overlay Optical dating Samarium-neodymium dating
Archaeological
Technical
Dating methodology
Dating Absolute dating Incremental dating Ice cores Dendrochronology archaeomagnetism glottochronology lichenometry paleomagnetism radiocarbon dating thermoluminescence radiometric dating uranium-lead tephrochronology dating
Stratification on seriation dating
genetic techniques
Amino acid dating Molecular clock
Related topics
Chronicle New Chronology Periodization Synchronoptic Timeline Year zero
Circa floruit
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Holy Fire 2010 (holy Grave light) part 3