Conservation of wetland ecosystems: A review
1. Introduction
A system is a set of parts interacting through one or more processes (Odum, 1983). This term has been introduced and defined by Tansley (1935), the WHO as a basic unit organizing the natural world that includes both the organizations and its surrounding territory. "Ecosystems are defined in different ways and at different spatial scales and temporal (Golley 1993, O'Neill et al. 1986; Evans, 1956). Some ecologists define ecosystems, on the basis of biotic organisms, populations or communities. For example, Hutchinson (1978) examined the ecosystem or the environmental context in which the population or community dynamics occur. Others define ecosystems in terms their characteristics and abiotic processes (Rowe and Barnes, 1994). For example, Lindeman (1942) defines ecosystem as "… system composed of physical, biologically active chemicals in an area / unit time. "If attention is focused on the biotic or abiotic and ecosystem processes, both part of the ecosystem concept. Rowe (1961) emphasized this point when the ecosystem is defined as "… a segment in three dimensions of the earth, where lifestyles and environment interact. "
Wetlands are ecosystems defined in a variety of ways by researchers, resource managers, and regulators, according to their specific needs and goals (Mitsch and Gosselink 1993). In the world's standards, planning and management, wetlands are in usually defined according to their physical, chemical, and biological weapons such as the hydrological regime, soil type and plant species composition. For example, when the classification of wetlands for mapping, inventory and other purposes, Cowardin et al. (1979) defines wetlands as "lands transitional … between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water … "Characterized by the presence of hydrophilic vegetation, soil water and surface water during the growing season.
Wetlands are often biodiversity "hotspots" (Reid et al., 2005), and the operation as filters for pollutants from point and diffuse sources, and be important for carbon sequestration and emissions (Finlayson et al., 2005). The value of wetlands in the world are receiving increasing attention as they contribute to a healthy environment in many ways. Wetland functions defined as normal or characteristics that occur in wetland ecosystems or simply things that are wet areas. Wetlands provide a variety of functions in the hierarchy from simple to complex, due to their physical, chemical and biological weapons. For example, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas is a relatively simple function performed by wetlands aerobic and anaerobic conditions exist in the presence of denitrifying bacteria. Nitrogen cycle and the nutrient cycling are more and more functions of wetlands complex, involving a greater number of components and the structural reform process. At the highest level of this hierarchy is the maintenance of ecological integrity, the function that includes all the structural elements and processes in a wetland ecosystem. Wetlands are among the most productive of all ecosystems, and perform critical functions in the regulation of hydrological processes in watersheds (Banner et al. 1988). Regular water quality water levels, flooding regimes and nutrient levels and sedimentation are some of these processes (Gregory et al. 1991). As in any natural habitat, wetlands play an important role in supporting species diversity and a complex of wetland values. Furthermore, the model seasonal variation of wetlands affects fluctuations in bird populations (D and Imran. A. Mith. A. D 2009). Even small wetlands are extremely important for biodiversity conservation because they are critical breeding habitat where people can exchange genetic material dispersed, reducing the risk of extinction (Semlitsch and Brodie 1998).
This review is intended to be, ultimately, distribution of wetlands, the value of wetlands, the causes and consequences of the loss of wetlands and their conservation status, with special reference to India.
2. Distribution of wetlands in India
In India, a total area of 40,494 km2 is classified as wetlands. It is only 1.21 percent of the total land area. Most wetlands in India directly or indirectly associated with major river systems such as the Ganges, Cauvery, the Krishan, the Godavari and Tapti. A directory of wetlands of India (1988) provides information on the location, size and ecological classification of wetlands in our country. The wetlands of India are divided into different geographical regions ranging from the Himalayas to the Deccan Plateau. Climate variability and topography changing is responsible for significant diversity. They are classified into different types according to their origin, vegetation, nutritional status, thermal characteristics, as 1. Wetlands Glaciatic (eg Tsomoriri in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh Chandertal).
2. Tectonics of wetlands (eg Nilnag in Jammu and Kashmir Khajjiar Himachal Pradesh and Nainital and Bhimtal in Uttaranchal).
3. Oxbow wetlands (eg Lake Wular Dal Lake in Jammu and Kashmir and Loktak in Manipur and other wetlands in the plains of the Brahmaputra River and the Indus-Ganges. Deepor Beel in Assam, Bihar Kabar, Surahtal in Uttar Pradesh).
4. Reservoirs (eg Chilika in Orissa).
5. Crater of wetlands (lake Lonar in Maharashtra).
6. Saltwater wetlands (eg, Pangong Tso, Jammu and Kashmir and Sambhar in Rajasthan)
7. Urban wetlands (eg Dal Lake in Jammu and Kashmir, Nainital in Uttaranchal and Madhya Pradesh Bhoj).
8. Wetland ponds and tanks (eg Harike in Punjab and Pong Dam in Himachal Pradesh).
9. Tanks (eg, Idukki, Hirakud Dam, Bhakra-Nangal dam).
10. Mangroves (eg Bhitarkanika in Orissa).
11. Coral reefs (eg, Lakshadweep).
12. Arroyos (Thane Creek in Maharashtra), seagrass beds, estuaries, the thermal waters are certain types of wetlands in the country.
The Indus flood-plain of the Ganges River is the largest system of wetlands in the India, stretching from the Indus in the west to the Brahmaputra in the east. This includes wetlands in the Himalayan Terai and Indo-Gangetic plains. The spacious apartments tidal, mangroves and lagoons along the coast of 7500 km long in Western Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The mangrove forests of Sunderbans in West Bengal and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Coral reefs of the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Eighty-four wetland areas have been identified for conservation and management under the National Program for the conservation and management wetlands.
These wetlands are eligible for financial assistance based on 100% subsidy to the state governments concerned to carry out activities such as survey and demarcation, weeding, processing trade zone, desiltation, conserving biodiversity, reducing pollution, creating media child support infrastructure, education and awareness, capacity building of various stakeholders, and community development. To date, 24 states have were completed, other states are expected to cover in the Five Year Plan XI.
Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining health general, cultural, economic and ecological aspects of ecosystems, their rapid disappearance from the landscape is very worrying. The Law on Wildlife Protection protects some environmentally sensitive areas while several wetlands become easy targets for human exploitation. Survey on the 147 main sites across the different agro climatic zones, anthropogenic interference identified as the primary cause degradation of wetlands (Wetland Directory of India 1993). Spatial extent of wetlands present in the different categories on the screen.
3. The loss of wetlands – a threat to environmental balance
The threats to wetland ecosystems include increased pressures biotic and abiotic stresses and dangers.
Biotic
(1) uncontrolled siltation and weed infestation.
(2) the uncontrolled disposal of sewage, industrial effluents, surface runoff, etc. resulting
in the proliferation of aquatic weeds, harming the flora and fauna.
(3) slaughter of trees for firewood and wood products makes soil loss affecting the rain
the loss of several aquatic species due to fluctuations in water level.
(4) The destruction of habitats, loss of fish and fewer birds.
Abiotic
(1) The invasion resulting in withdrawal from the area.
(2) anthropogenic pressures as a result of habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.
(3) uncontrolled dredging resulted in changes in the sequence.
(4) loss resulting hydrologic response of aquifers.
(5) and non-point source pollution, resulting in the deterioration of the quality water.
(6) Bad effects of fertilizers and pesticides from adjacent fields.
Coastal ecosystems are among the most productive of systems, but very endangered in the world. These ecosystems to produce disproportionately more services related to welfare than most other systems, even those covering large areas in total, but still have some of the more rapid degradation and loss of:
(1). About 35% of mangroves have been lost in the last two decades, driven primarily by the development of aquaculture, deforestation and diversion of fresh water.
(2). 20% of coral reefs were lost and more than 20% additional degradation in the last decades of the twentieth century through overexploitation, the destructive fishing practices, pollution and sedimentation and changes in storm frequency and intensity.
(3). It has been established but incomplete evidence that changes are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes, and potentially abrupt changes in ecosystems, with important consequences for welfare. These nonlinear changes can be significant in magnitude and difficult, costly or impossible to reverse. For example, once a threshold of nutrient loading factor is crossed, the changes in freshwater and coastal ecosystems can be abrupt and extensive, creating algal blooms pests (including flowers of the toxic species) and sometimes leads to the formation of oxygen-free zones, killing all animal life. Prediction capabilities of nonlinear changes are improving, but scientists in general can not predict the thresholds at which the change is. The increased likelihood of these nonlinear changes resulting from the loss of biodiversity and increased pressure Multiple factors direct ecosystem change. The loss of species and genetic diversity decreases the resilience of ecosystems and their ability to maintain ecosystem services, especially when conditions change. Furthermore, the increased pressure of drivers, such as overfishing, climate change, species of species, ecosystems and nutrient loading push the limits might not otherwise have met.
(4). Many species of wetland dependent in many parts of the world are in decline, the status of species dependent on inland waters and waterfowl depend on coastal wetlands is of particular concern. Although evidence of the geographical boundaries and are primarily from the species already threatened with extinction.
The main factors indirect loss and degradation of rivers, lakes, freshwater marshes, and inland wetlands (including loss of species or reductions in populations of these systems) were the growth in population and increasing economic development. The main factors of degradation and loss are the development of the infrastructure, land conversion, water withdrawal, pollution, overfishing and overexploitation and introduction of invasive alien species.
The rate of loss being in India can result in serious consequences, where 74% of the population lives in rural areas (Anonymous 1994) and many These people depend on natural resources. Healthy wetlands are essential in India for sustainable food production and availability of drinking water for humans humans and livestock. They are also required for the persistence of various Indian villages, wildlife and plant species, a large number of endemic species are dependent wetland. Most problems related to wetlands in India are related to the human population. India contains 16% of world population, and is still only 2.42% of the earth's surface. Landscape of India has contained the fewer natural wetlands over time. The restoration of these wetlands is difficult turn once these sites are occupied by the absence of wetlands. Therefore, the demand for wetland products (eg, water, fish, timber, fiber and medicinal plants etc) will increase with population growth. The loss of wetlands is referred to the physical loss of the space dimension or the loss of function of wetlands. The loss of km2 of wetlands in India have a far greater impact than the loss of km2 of wetlands in areas with small populations of the abundance of wetlands (Foote Lee et al. 1996). The loss of wetlands India can be divided into two main groups, namely, acute and chronic losses. The filling of wetlands with soil loss is serious and progressive elimination of forest cover that later erosion and sedimentation of wetlands for many decades is called the loss column.
Acute Loss of wetlands
(1). Direct deforestation in wetlands: The mangrove vegetation of flood and salt tolerant and push along the coast and are valued by seafood, forage, firewood, construction materials, local medicine, honey bee wax and for extracting chemicals for tanning (Leather Ahmad, 1980). Other methods Agriculture and Fisheries has replaced several mangrove areas and remain a threat. Four twenty percent of India's 4240 km2 of mangrove forests in the Sunderbans and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Anon, 1991). But most Coastal mangroves are under strong pressure due economic demand for shrimp. Important ecosystem functions as a buffer against storms, breeding areas and escape cover for fish commercially important is lost. The shrimp farming has also led to excessive extraction of fresh water and increasing the burden of pollution in water such as lime has increased, organic wastes, pesticides, chemicals and pathogens. The biggest impacts were in the population depends directly on the mangroves for natural materials, Fish protein and income. The ability of wetlands to trap sediment and slow water is reduced.
(2). Hydrologic alteration: Alteration of hydrology can change the features, functions, values and the emergence of wetlands. Changes in hydrology to include either Drain water from wetlands or increase raising the earth's surface, making it more flooding. Dredging operations are conducted India in 1800, since 3044 km2 irrigated land has increased to 4550 km2 in 1990 (Anonymous, 1994). First increase crop productivity has led to reduced fertility and the the accumulation of salts in the soil due to irrigated agriculture arid soils. India has 32,000 hectares of peat land remains and draining of these lands carry rapid subsidence of the soil surface.
(3). Agricultural conversion: The main factor direct loss and degradation of coastal wetlands, including marshes, mangroves, seagrass marine and coral reefs has been the conversion to other uses. In the Indian subcontinent due to rice, there was a loss of spatial extent of wetlands. Rice cultivation is an activity that depends on wetlands and grows in coastal areas, deltas and savanna areas. Because of the precipitation captured aquaculture ponds in the watershed rice farms and areas of occupation, are not wetlands, water is closed to natural wetlands downstream. Some 1.6 million hectares of freshwater ponds are covered by freshwater fish in India. Rice paddies and ponds are wetlands, but they rarely work as natural wetlands. Of the 58.2 million hectares of wetlands in India, 40.9 million hectares of rice (Anonymous, 1993).
Chronic Loss of wetlands
(1). The degradation of water quality: Water quality is directly proportional to human population and its various activities. More 50,000 small and large lakes are polluted point is considered "dead" (Chopra, 1985). The main pollutants are factors of sewage, industrial pollution and agricultural runoff containing May fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides.
(2). The introduction of species and extinction of native biota: Wetlands Areas in support of India about 2400 species and subspecies of birds. But losses at home have threatened the diversity of these ecosystems (Mitchell & Gopal, 1990). Introduction of exotic species such as water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) threatened wetlands and clogged the rivers with native competing vegetation. In a recent attempt to give priority to wetlands Conservation, Samant (1999) noted that at least 700 possible non-wetlands data to establish priorities. Many of these wetlands are threatened.
(3). Groundwater depletion: The draining of wetlands, soil recharge. Recent estimate indicates that rural India, nearly 6,000 people without source of drinking water due to rapid depletion of groundwater.
4. Status and trends of wetland-dependent species
More and more evidence the general decline of the rapid and continuous in many populations of species dependent on wetlands. Data on the status and trends of species populations in some groups that depend on inland wetlands, including mollusks, amphibians, fish, waterfowl, and some water-dependent mammals have been compiled and decreases are clear. An index of the evolution of vertebrate species populations has also been developed and shows a steady and rapid decline of populations freshwater vertebrates from 1970, to much stricter than for terrestrial or marine species.
Even for the most poorly known fauna of wetlands, such as invertebrates, existing assessments show that species of these groups are in grave danger. For example, the Red List IUCN reports that some 275 species of freshwater crustaceans and 420 freshwater mollusks are globally threatened, although no comprehensive global assessment was made of all species of these groups. In the United States, one of the few countries to comprehensively assess shellfish and freshwater crustaceans, 50% of species of crabs known river and two-thirds of freshwater mollusks are endangered, and at least one in 10 freshwater mollusks is likely to have disappeared. Almost third (1856 species) of amphibians worldwide are threatened with extinction, many of them (964 species) are dependent on freshwater. (By comparison, only 12% of all bird species and 23% of all mammal species are threatened.) Moreover, at least 43% of all amphibian species are declining population, indicating that the number of threatened species can be expected to increase in the future. In contrast, less than 1% species show population growth. Species that depend on water, are much more likely to be threatened than those of water. (Figure 5) watersheds with the greatest number of freshwater species risk between 13 and 98 species are the Amazon, Yangtze, Niger, Paraná, Mekong, Red and Pearl (China), Krishna (India) and Balsas and Usumacinta (Central America). The rate of decline in conservation status of freshwater amphibians is far greater than that of terrestrial species. As amphibians are good indicators of environmental quality Overall, this reinforces the idea of the current decline of freshwater habitats in the world.
Key Vulnerabilities
Gitay et al. (2001) describes some of the inland water ecosystems (Arctic, subarctic ombrotrophic bog communities on permafrost, depressional wetlands with small catchments, drained or otherwise converted peatlands) as the most vulnerable climate change, noting the limits of adaptation due to the dependence of water availability is controlled by external factors. More recent results show that the geographic vulnerability (Stern, 2007). This includes significant negative in 25% of Africa by 2100 (SRES emission scenario B1, de Wit and Stankiewicz, 2006), both water quality and goods and services deteriorate. As is generally difficult and costly to control hydrological regimes, interdependence between watersheds across national borders often leaves little room for adaptation.
Impacts
The impacts of climate change on inland water ecosystems will be among the effects direct increase in temperature and CO2 concentration on the indirect effects through changes in the hydrology of the consequent changes in precipitation patterns, regional or global, and the melting of glaciers and ice cover (eg, Chapters 1 and 3; Cubasch et al. 2001, Lemke et al., 2007, Meehl et al., 2007). Studies since the TAR (Third Assessment Report of the IPCC) have confirmed and reinforced previous findings that higher temperatures reduce water quality in lakes in low hypolimnetic oxygen concentrations, the release of phosphorus (P) from sediment, greater thermal stability, and altered patterns mixture (Jankowski et al., 2006). In northern latitudes, the ice cover on lakes and rivers continue to break down sooner and ice-free periods increase (Duguay et al., 2006). Higher temperatures will negatively affect the microorganisms and benthic invertebrates (Kling et al., 2003) and the distribution of many species (fish Kling et al., 2003), invertebrates, aquatic biota and exotic tropical tend to slide towards the poles (and Zalakevicius Svaz, 2005) with some potential extinction. Major changes likely to occur in species composition, seasonality and production of planktonic communities (eg, increased blooms of toxic blue algae) and their interactions in the food chain (Winder and Schindler, 2004) with the resulting water quality changes. Increased radiation UV-B and increased summer precipitation significantly increased concentrations of dissolved organic carbon to alter the major biogeochemical cycles (Frey and Smith, 2005). The studies along an altitudinal gradient in central Sweden show that nuclear energy can increase by an order of magnitude for an increase of 6 ° C temperature air (Karlsson et al., 2005). However, tropical lakes may respond with lower NPP and fish yields in decline (for example, 20% nuclear and 30% reduction in yields of fish in Lake Tanganyika in Because of the warming over the last century O'Reilly et al., 2003). Higher levels of CO2 generally increases NPP many wetlands, but in the swamps and rice fields can also stimulate the flow of methane, thus negating the positive effects (Zheng et al., 2006). Peatlands Borealis is the most affected by warming and increased winter precipitation in the species composition both plant and animal communities have changed significantly (Weltzin et al., 2000, 2001, 2003; Berendse et al. 2001, Keller et al., 2004). Many Arctic lakes dried at a temperature of 2-3 ° C (Smith et al., 2005). Patterns seasonal migration routes and wetlands species that many countries will change and some may be in danger. Slight increase in rainfall variability have a significant impact on wetland plants and animals in different stages of their life cycle. In monsoon regions, increased risk of variability the loss of wetland biodiversity and periods of prolonged drought terrestrialisation promote wetlands as a witness in the Keoladeo National Park, India (Chauhan and Gopal, 2001).
5. Wetlands Management – Current Status
The wetlands are not delineated under any other specific administrative court. The main responsibility for the management of these ecosystems is in the hands of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. While some wetlands are protected from the wording of the law on protection of wildlife, others are in serious danger of extinction. An effective coordination between different ministries, energy, industry, income from fishing, agriculture, transportation and water resources is essential to protect these ecosystems.
Cardinal Components of a Comprehensive Strategy for Wetland Conservation Areas:
Conservation and wetland management requires a comprehensive strategy, ranging from legal and political support for establishing the institutional mechanism, capacity building and participation Community. The position on these issues is as follows:
Legal Framework
Although no specific provision for the specific legal instrument for conservation of wetlands, the legal framework for the conservation and management is ensured by the following legal instruments:
1. Several pieces of legislation were enacted, to have an interest in conserving wetlands. These include the Forest Act of 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1974 Water, 1977 and the overall design of the environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
2. India has created 505 wildlife sanctuaries and 100 national parks, 14 biosphere reserves, 6 sites of heritage conservation projects and conservation of the tiger elephant and the conservation of sea turtles with the goal of effective conservation of wetlands, and the richness of the fauna and flora in the forests.
3. Notification coastal state extends to the seas, bays, estuaries, rivers, streams and rivers, which are influenced by tidal action (on the land) to 500 meters from the high tide line, and the land between low tide line and high tide line that notification of the Coastal Regulation Zone, 1991 in Under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. This restriction has ordered the creation and expansion of industries, including the pressures of human activities.
4. Some parts of the sites listed have been declared nature reserves and national parks.
5. Guidelines for sustainable development and management of brackish water aquaculture has been developed. State governments like Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Aquaculture also have guidelines locally.
6. The Biodiversity Act 2002 and Regulations 2004 biodiversity they seek to protect the biological diversity of flora and fauna, and to regulate its flow from country to other countries for research and commercial use. Therefore, its provisions also help to preserve, maintain and enhance biodiversity flora, fauna and waterfowl in the country.
Support Policy: the National Environment Policy (NEP), 2006
Our National Environmental Policy (NEP), approved by Cabinet on 19 May 2006 recognizes the many ecological services provided by wetlands. NEP states:
"Wetlands are threatened by drainage and conversion for agriculture and human settlements, and more pollution. This occurs because the public authorities or individuals which has jurisdiction over wetlands resulting little revenue from them, while the use of alternatives may result in unexpected financial gains for themselves. However, in many cases, economic values of services environmental wetland from May significantly higher alternative use value. On the otherhand, reducing the economic value of environmental services due to pollution and health costs of pollution itself is not taken into account while using them as landfill. There is still no formal system of regulation of wetlands outside the international commitments on Ramsar sites. Vision of wetlands in general it is necessary to consider each of wetlands identified in accordance its links with other natural causes, the needs of human beings and their own attributes.
Environmental Policy Plan identifies six times the action:
1. Establish a legally binding regulation for wetlands identified valuable to avoid degradation and promote conservation. Establish a national inventory of these wetlands.
2. Develop strategies for conservation and wise use of wetlands every significant documented, with the participation of local communities and other stakeholders.
3. Develop and implement strategies to ecotourism wetlands identified through multi-stakeholder partnerships involving public bodies and local investors.
4. Take explicit amount of impact on wetlands of significant development projects in the environmental assessment of these projects, in particular, reducing the economic value services of wetlands of the environment must be taken into account explicitly in the cost-benefit analysis.
5. Take particular wetlands as entities individual with "Incomparable Values", to develop strategies for their protection.
6. Integrating wetland conservation, including the conservation of ponds and tanks in the village in the development of sectoral plans for combating poverty and improving livelihoods, and efforts to link conservation and sustainable use of wetlands with the continued development of rural infrastructure and programs to create jobs. Promote technologies and practices for the conservation of the village ponds.
Inventorization
Study and inventory must be taken into consideration identification of various human activities, the effect of industrial and domestic effluents, and information obtained through remote sensing to be verified with reliable data on the field to get adequate results. This component includes the mapping watershed using earnings records, survey and assessment of the pattern of land use using GIS techniques, with emphasis on drainage pattern, cover, cover, siltation, encroachment, conversion of wetlands, Human Settlements, the total area invaded, human activities primary, secondary and tertiary education, and its impact on the watershed and water bodies. In the following surveys of wetlands have been performed to date:
1. Asian Wetland Directory, 1989 – identified 93 wetlands of international importance.
2. Directory of Wetlands, published in 1990 by the Ministry of Environment and Forests by questionnaire survey.
3. 2167 Identification of natural freshwater wetlands covering 1.5 million Ha Area.
4. Identification of 65,253 artificial freshwater wetland area covering 2.6 million hectares.
5. WWF-India and the Ministry of Environment and Forestry in 1993 identified 54 new Wetlands of International Importance in more detail.
6. Space Applications Center using remote sensing inland wetlands identified 27,403 and coastal areas covering 7.6 million hectares
7. Salim Ali Center for Ornithology under the UNDP project has undertaken a study of 72 districts.
8. A project on "Information System of the National Wetland Inventory and updation of wetlands has been sanctioned by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Objectives of this project are (1) for the map and inventory wetlands in the scale of 1:50,000 in the interpretation of digital data screen IRS LISS III pre-and post-seasons monsoon, (2) to prepare State Atlas of wetlands, and (3) to create a digital database in GIS environment with respect to all wetlands in the country.
9. The Center for Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University, Parangipettai was helped draft update mode, all wetlands in the country.
Institutional mechanism
(a) It is imperative to have a multidisciplinary, comprehensive and integrated strategy to ensure long term conservation of wetlands and management. Currently, there are models in different nodal states and different agencies are responsible for implementing the Platform for wetland conservation. In some states, the program is run by the Department Forestry and / or the environment or urban development in some others, the Irrigation Department or science and technology and fisheries. However, conservation of wetlands and management is a specialized field, where scientists and technicians, it is necessary interdisciplinary approach, involving a number of elements such as water management, sustainable fisheries, the hydrological, socio-economic, community involvement, weed control, conservation and use of aquatic macrophytes for nutrient recycling process, provide hydrological information on entries and exits in the system model of diversity biological nutrient fluxes and nutrient dynamics. These issues should be addressed in a coordinated manner by managers with experience in relevant fields.
(b) Given the complexity of the issue, the steering committees of the state have formed under the chairmanship of the Chief Secretaries of State, members of all departments concerned. The Committee is also expected to have representatives of communities, NGOs and academics. Department official acts as a nodal member committee secretary. The program's success depends on strong institutional mechanism in the conservation efforts are conducted through an integrated and multidisciplinary approach. However, due to insufficient infrastructure and personnel, conservation activities are yet to acquire the full and sustainability in some states.
State governments have been invited to consider establishing local Wetland Conservation for experts various departments to carry out conservation activities in a more scientific, more coherent and sustainable.
(c) Some States have already formed authorities to implement programs for wetland conservation in their respective states. Among them Chilika Development Authority are in Orissa (in charge of manage all lakes identified in the State); Loktak Development Authority Manipur, Shore Area Development Authority in Andhra Pradesh, lakes and canals Authority Development in Jammu and Kashmir, the Lake Development Authority in Karnataka Conservation Authority and Lake in Madhya Pradesh.
Capacity
Capacity building is an important instrument without which no conservation work is possible. We have a good infrastructure, training and case studies to teach the values and functions of wetlands an integrated and multidisciplinary way. The Department has taken several initiatives in this regard in accordance with the details given below.
(a) He has published several reports and papers on the conservation and wise use of wetlands, including six monographs on Ramsar sites, in collaboration with WWF France guidelines and ecological tourism in Chilika Lake.
(b) During the Tenth Five Year Plan, training programs have been several collaborative with various universities and research institutes and state governments and international NGOs to provide training on the various components of wetland conservation including rational treatment of the basin, weeding, hydrological, research methodology, preparation of management plans and participation Community. Training is provided to policy makers, senior managers / intermediate level, organizations, stakeholders and others. A National Program Training for Integrated Water Resources Management and Conservation of wetlands was held during 7-11 August 2006 Chilika Authority for the Development with funding from the Department of Environment and Forests. More training programs are proposed to be organized in different regions of
Country.
A series of regional workshops were organized in various regions of the country so that people aware of the importance of wetlands and to integrate their traditional knowledge the planning process. The regional and international workshops were organized during the Tenth Plan following:
1 of the Western Region, Gujarat,
South 2 Region, Kerala,
3 of the Eastern Region, Orissa,
4 North-East, Manipur,
5 Central Region, Madhya Pradesh,
6 Northern Region, Uttar Pradesh,
7 North Region, Jammu and Kashmir
8 Region South, Lakshadweep
9 International Workshop on High Altitude Wetlands, Sikkim
10 Meeting of the Board of Directors of Wetlands International, Rajasthan
Workshops and regional research organizations and managers of wetlands is a permanent feature.
Participation Community
(a) no decision-making is complete without the participation of local people whose livelihoods depend on wetland resources. People use wetlands for time immemorial. We have to combine both traditional technologies and latest scientific objectives to achieve long-term preservation. The participatory rural appraisal exercise with local communities must be the ingredient main community involvement. This should also take into account women's issues and gender awareness and participation of women in the management process.
(b) The element of community involvement includes the following components.
1. Assessing the availability of resources for investigations and evaluation of participatory rural site.
2. Stakeholder analysis
3. Contact with external institutions for resources and technical advice
4. The use of waste and aquatic plants for the regeneration of energy, for example by setting up community-based biogas plants.
5. Additional programs of alternative income generation, such as handicrafts, crafts, techniques, integrated farm management and other measures to reduce pressure on wetlands.
6. Highlighting gender-related cross-cultural, governance and other practices other specific concerns evaluation by the community.
(c) Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMC), also called villagers Protection Committees (VPC) or eco-development committees (CDE) are known to play an active role in conservation and management of wetlands in the border areas of forests, ie, usually within a 5 km radius of the tree line. The JFMC / VPC / EDC will be crucial in mobilizing communities and equitable access information rights.
The use of geospatial technology in the management of wetlands
Remote sensing data in combination with Geographic Information System (GIS) are effective tools for wetland conservation and management. Demand includes assessment of water resources, hydrologic modeling of flood management, research capacity of the reservoir, evaluation and monitoring of the environmental impacts of the proposed allocation of water resources and water quality and control (Jonna 1999).
Zoning Map flood
Satellite data are used for interpretation and the delineation of flood inundated areas, areas of flood risk. Temporal data helps us to obtain information on the status of the project is properly grounded current conservation. IRS 1C / D data WiFS with 180 kilometers of high spatial and temporal resolution repetitiveness has helped delineate the areas of flood zoning important organs of the river, thus contributing to the preparation of the stock status of midwives and wise flood basin.
Analysis of water quality and modeling
Remote sensing data used for analysis of parameters of water quality and modeling. Studies on water quality were carried out using the relationship between reflectance, the concentration of suspended solids, and chlorophyll concentration. In the range of wavelengths in the near infrared quantity, the suspended solids content is directly proportional to the reflectivity. Due to the spatial and temporal resolution satellite data source pollution information and point of discharge, the inflow of wastewater can be monitored regularly. Using data from IRS LISS II (Sasmal and Raju 1996) oversaw the suspended load in estuarine waters of Hooghly, West Bengal, in a GIS environment. In this study group 4 of the data set has been found to show more wide range of digital classrooms indicating a better response with depth than the rest of the bands. Landsat TM and IRS-1A data were used to estimate the sediment load in the lake Superior, Bhopal (Luis et al. 1993). This study has demonstrated the strong relationship between the satellite and the actual data from field radiometric Suspended Solids and total. Different image processing algorithms are also used Landsat MSS data to define the sediment concentration in reservoirs (Jonna et al. 1989). The remote sensing methods have been used qualitatively for real time monitoring of the quality of inland waters (Gitelson et al. 1993) Airborne sensor has also been used to study primary productivity and related parameters in coastal waters and large water bodies (Seshmani et al. 1994).
Water Management
With the development of high accuracy of remote sensing in spatial resolution and GIS, watershed modeling has become more physically based and distributed enumerate processes interactive hydrology due to spatial heterogeneity. A distribution model SCS Curve Number method known as Land Use Change (LUC) model was developed (Mohan & Shrestha 2000) to assess the hydrological changes are due to changes in use. The model was applied to the Bagmati River in Kathmandu Valley Basin, Nepal. The study has clearly demonstrated that integration of remote sensing, GIS and spatial distribution model provides a powerful tool for evaluating hydrological changes due to changes in land use.
Mapping of wetlands
Space Application Center (SAC) has mapped wetlands 1:250000 in the mainland and the islands through visual interpretation of data from low resolution satellite. States Sikkim, West Bengal, Goa, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Delhi, Andaman, Nicobar, Lakshwadeep, Dadra and Nagerhaveli 1:50000 scale are drawn. However, in the rest of the country, only wetlands of 56.25 ha and above the waist could be assigned. It is known that the vast majority wetlands, often in number, scope and importance of conservation is less than 50 hectares in size (for example, the Indus plain – the Ganges and the Peninsula Deccan). Thus, the inventory covers only a small number of wetlands: longer, the conservation values are not known, even for wetlands, inventory which has been obtained. The data only indicate the location of wetlands, the classification of wetland environments is 1:250,000 scale, only geomorphological in nature (such as cars, beaches, lakes and ponds, etc.) and has no other evidence of value for biological conservation. In itself, information only be partially useful for the conservation of wetlands. This estimate is likely to double when including wetlands the size of 50 hectares or less (Das et al. Etwah and 1994 for the Mainpuri district of UP).
6. Conclusion
Threats to wetland ecosystems include increased pressure biotic and abiotic hazards. About 35% of mangroves have been lost in the last two decades, driven mainly by the development of aquaculture, deforestation, and diversion of fresh water. 20% of coral reefs have been lost and more than 20% degraded in recent twentieth century through overexploitation, destructive fishing practices, pollution and sedimentation and changes in the frequency of storms and intensity. The main source of direct loss and degradation of coastal wetlands, including salt water marsh, mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs has been converted to other uses. In the Indian subcontinent due to rice, there was a loss of the spatial extent of wetlands. Wetlands in support of India about 2400 species and subspecies of birds. But losses at home have threatened the diversity of these ecosystems Introduction species exotic water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and Salvinia (Salvinia molesta) wetlands threatened and obstructed the course of competing water with native vegetation. at least 700 potential wetlands have no data to establish priorities. Many of these wetlands are threatened. In monsoon regions, the increase risk of reduced variability of wetland biodiversity and prolonged drought terrestrialisation promote wetlands as a witness in the Keoladeo National Park, India. Whenever the current management of wetlands India is concerned, wetlands are not delineated in any specific administrative jurisdiction. Responsibility The primary management of these ecosystems is in the hands of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. While some wetlands are protected after the drafting of the Law on Protection of wildlife, others are in serious danger of extinction. Effective coordination between ministries, energy, industry, fisheries, revenue, agriculture, transportation and water resources is essential for the protection of these ecosystems. The dynamic nature of wetlands requires use widespread and systematic use of satellite remote sensing, low cost and affordable GIS tools for effective management and control.
References
1. Ahmad, N. 1980. Some aspects of the economic resources of the Sundarbans mangrove forest in Bangladesh. pp. 50 – 51. In P. Soepadmo (ed.), Mangrove Environment: Research and Management. Report on the Symposium of UNESCO in Asia, held at the University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 25-29 August 1980.
2. Anonymous, 1991. Mexico 1990. An annual refrence. Research and Reference, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. India, New Delhi.
3. Anonymous, 1993. Directory of Indian wetlands. World Wildlife Federation, New Delhi,
4. Anonymous, 1994. World Development Report. World Bank Development Report.
5. A banner, RJ Hebda, ET Oswald J. Pojar, and R Trowbridge 1988, Canada's Pacific wetlands. In Wetlands of Canada, the National Working Group on Wetlands. Polyscience, Ottawa, ON., Pp 306-346.
6. Chauhan, M. and B. Gopal, 2001: biodiversity and management of Keoladeo National Park (India): a wetland of international importance. Biodiversity in wetlands: evaluation and Conservation Service: Volume 2, B. Gopal, WJ Junk and JA Davis, Eds., Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, 217-256.
7. Chopra, R. 1985.'s environmental state of India. Ambassador Press, New Delhi.
8. Cowardin, LM, V. Carter, Goleta, FC and LaRoe, ET (1979). "Classification wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States, "U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Biological FWS/OBS-79/31, Washington, DC.
9. Cubasch, U., GAMeehl, GJ Boer, RJ Stouffer, M. Dix, A. Noda, CA Senior, S. Projections Raper and KS Yap, 2001: from future climate change. Climate Change 2001: The scientific basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, JT Houghton, Y. Ding, DJ Griggs, M. Noguer, PJ van der Linden, X. Dai, K. Maskell and CA Johnson, Eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge-525 to 582.
10. de Wit, M. and J. Stankiewicz, 2006: Changes in surface water across Africa with predicted climate change. Science, 311, 1917-1921.
11. Duguay, CR, TD Prowse, BR Bonsal, RD Brown, MP Lacroix and P. Recent trends Menard, 2006: Canadian lake ice cover. Hydrol. Process., 20, 781-801.
12. Evans, FC (1956). "Ecosystem as the basic unit of ecology, Science 123, 1127 to 1128.
13. Finlayson, CM, R. D'Cruz, N. Davidson, J. Alder, S. Cork, R. de Groot, C. Leveque, GR Milton, G. Peterson, D. Pritchard, BD Ratner, WV Reid, C. Revenga, M. Rivera, F. Schutyser Mr. Siebentritt Mr. Stuip, R. Tharme, S. Butchart, E. Dieme-Amting, H. Gitay, S. Raaymakers and D. Taylor, eds., 2005: Ecosystems HUMANWELL-being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, District of Columbia, 80 pp.
14. Lee Foote, S., and Pandey, Krogman NT. 1996. Process of wetland loss in India. Environmental Conservation 23: 45-54.
15. Frey, KE and LC Smith, 2005: Press vastWest peatland carbon Amplified Siberia in 2100. Geophys. Res Lett., 32, L09401, doi: 10.1029/2004GL02202
16. Gitay, H., S. Brown, W. Impacts Easterling and B. Jallow, 2001: Ecosystems and their goods and services. Climate Change 2001:, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, JJMcCarthy, OF Canziani, NA Leary, DJ Dokken and KS White, eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 237-342.
17. Gitelson, AG Garbuzov. F. Szilagyi. Mittenzwey KH. A. Karnieli & A. Kaiser. 1993. Quantitative remote sensing methods for real-time monitoring inland water quality. International Journal of Remote Sensing 14: 1269-1295.
18. Golley, FB (1993). A History of the ecosystem concept in ecology. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT.
19. Goswami, AK Rai, ND Sharma, KV Ravindran & PK Sharma (eds.). Proceedings of National Symposium on Remote Sensing Applications to management resources with special emphasis on the Northeast, Guwahati.
29. Gregory SV, FJ Swanson, WA McKee, and WC.Kenneth, 1991. A riparian ecosystem perspective. Bioscience 41:540-550.
21. Hutchinson, GE (1978). Introduction to population ecology. Yale University Press, New Haven, CN.
22. Imran. A. Giving and Mith. A. Dar, the seasonal variation of bird populations in wetlands Shallabug Kashmir, India: Journal of Wetlands Ecology, (2009) vol. 2, pp 19-33
- 23. Imran. A. Giving and Mith. A. Dar, the assessment of changes in the number of birds in wetlands Haigam, Kashmir: ESAIJ (Science Environment: An Indian newspaper), 4 (5), 2009 [260-268]
24. Jankowski, T., DM Livingstone, H. Buhrer, R. and P. Niederhaser Forster, 2006: Consequences of the European heat wave of 2003 for lake temperature profiles, thermal stability and hypolimnetic oxygen depletion: implications for a warmer world. Limnol. Oceanogr., 51, 815-819.
25. Jonna, S. 1999. Remote Sensing Applications for Water Resources: A Retrospective and foresight. pp. 368 to 377. In: S. Adiga (ed.). Proceedings of National Symposium on Remote Sensing Applications SSRIs natural resources. Dehradun.
26. Jonna, S., KVS Badarinath & J. Saibaba. 1989. Digital image processing of remote sensing data for water quality studies. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing 17: 59-64.
27. Karlsson, J., A. AND M. Jonsson. Jansson, 2005: Productivity high-latitude lakes: climate effect inferred fromaltitude gradient. Global Change Biol., 11, 710-715.
28. Kling, K. Hayhoe, LB Johnsoin, JJ Magnuson, S. Polasky, SK Robinson, BJ Shuter, MMWander, DJWuebbles and DR Zak, 2003: Confronting Climate Change in the Great Lakes region: impacts in our communities and ecosystems. Union of Concerned Scientists and the Ecological Society of America, Cambridge, Massachusetts AndWashington, the District of Columbia, 92 pp.
29. Lemke, P., J. Ren, R. Alley, I. Allison, J. Carrasco, G. Flato, Y. Fujii, G. Kaser, P. Mote, R. Thomas and T. Zhang, 2007: Observations: Changes in the snow, ice and frozen ground. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, KBAveryt, M. Tignor and HL Miller, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 335-383.
30. Lindeman, RL (1942). "The dynamics of the feeding ecology, Ecology 23, 399 to 418.
31. Meehl, GA, TF Stocker, W. Collins, P. Friedlingstein, A. Gaye, J. Gregory, A. Kitoh, R. Knutti, J. Murphy, A. Noda, S. Raper, I. Watterson, A. Weaver and Z. – C. Zhao, 2007: global climate projections. Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel Panel on Climate Change, S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, KB Averyt, M. Tignor and HL Miller, eds. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 747-845.
32. Mitchell, S. & B. Gopal. 1990. Invasion of exotic tropical freshwater. pp. 139-154. In: PS Ramakrishnan (ed.), Ecology of biological invasions in the tropics.
33. Mitsch, WJ, and Gosselink, JG (1993). Wetlands. 2nd ed. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
34. Mohan, S. MN & Shrestha. 2000. An integrated model of GIS Assessment of hydrological changes due to the change of use of land-s. Pp 27-29. In: TV Ramchandra (ed.) Symposium on restoration of lakes and wetlands, in November 2000, the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore.
35. Odum, HT (1983). Systems Ecology: An Introduction. Wiley Interscience Publication, New York.
36. O'Neill, RV, DeAngelis DL, Waide, JB, and Allen, TFH (1986). "A hierarchical concept of ecosystems," Monographs Population Biology 23, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
37. Parikh, J. & K. Parikh. 1999. Sustainable wetlands. Environmental Governance – 2, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai.
38. Raju, PLN, Chakraborti AK & Deshpande CV. 1993. Estimate of lake sediments higher suspended load, using techniques of Bhopal, remote sensing. pp. 25-27. In: B. Sahai, DC
39. Reid, WV, HAMooney, A. Cropper, D. Capistrano, SR Carpenter, K. Chopra, P. Dasgupta, T. Dietz, AK Duraiappah, R. Hassan, R. Kasperson, R. Leemans, RM May, AJ McMichael, P. Pingali, C. Samper, R. Scholes, RT Watson, AH Zakri, Z. Shidong, NJAsh, E. Bennett, P. Kumar, MJ Lee, C. Raudsepp – Hearne, H. Simons, J. Thonell and MB Zurek, Eds., 2005: Ecosystems and Human Wellbeing: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, District of Columbia, 155 pp.
40. Rowe, JS (1961). "The level integration concept and ecology ", Ecology 42, 420-277.
41. Rowe, JS, and Barnes, BV (1994). "Geo-ecosystems and bioecosystems" Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 75, 40-41.
40. Samant, S. 1999. Prioritization of sites for conservation Biodiversity in wetlands of India. pp. 155-167. In: Shekhar Singh, ARK Sastry, Raman Mehta & Vishaish Uppal (eds.). Prioritization for Biodiversity Conservation India. World Wildlife Fund, India.
42. Sasmal, SK & PLN Raju. 1996. Monitoring of suspended load of the Hooghly estuary waters with satellite data using PC-based GIS environment. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on the management of coastal areas. febrero 25-26 Behrampura University Behrampura, Orissa.
44. Brodie and RD Semlitsch RD 1998. They are small, isolated wetlands expendable? Conservation Biology 12:1129-1133.
45. Seshamani, R., TK Alex & YK Jain. 1994. A sensor in the air of primary productivity and water-related parameters zone and large bodies of water. International Journal of Remote Sensing 15: 1101-1108.
46. Smith, LC, Y. Sheng, GMMacDonald and LD Hinzman, 2005: disappearance Arctic lakes. Science, 308, 1429.
45. Stern, N., 2007: The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 692 pp.
48. Tansley, AG (1935). "The use and abuse of concepts and terms of vegetation", Ecology 16, 284307.
47. Winder, M. and Schindler, 2004: Effects of climate change on the phenology of lake processes. Global Change Biol., 10, 1844-1856.
50. Zalakevicius, M. and S. Svaz, 2005: Global climate change and its impact on wetlands and waterfowl populations. Acta Zool. Lituanica, 15, 215-217.
51. Zheng, X., Z. Zhou, Y. Wang, J. Zhu, Y. Wang, J. Yue, Y. Shi, K. Kobayashi, K. Inubushi, Y. Huang, SH Han, ZJ Xu, BH Xie, K. Butterbach-Bahl LX and Yang, 2006: Nitrogen-regulated effects of free air CO2 enrichment on methane emissions from rice fields. Global Change Biol., 12, 1717-1732.
About the Author
I am Imran Ahmad Dar. I have completed my M.Sc. in Environmental Sciences in Kashmir University, India and i am doing research (Ph.D) in the department of Industries and Earth Sciences, Tamil University, India.I am having seven(refreed and peer reviewed) international publications. In addition i have presented three papers in National Symposium/Conferences. Moreover, presently, i am the Editor of the journal- Journal of Wetland Ecology, besides being the reviewer of Journal of Coastal Research and Journal of Hydrology.
Wild Ride Around Lakes Superior & Michigan
|
|
Celeritas Sports Green Basketball Duffel/black Logo Item Number 60007 $19.99 Celeritas Sports is a sports and entertainment company. The word Celeritas is a Latin-based word that can be translated as fast or speedy, an excellent match for the sports-related theme. Celeritas Sports logo is comprised of three overlapping Cs, which creates an artistic design that fits well into todays market. The three overlapping Cs is an abbreviation for Celeritas and also represents the s… |
|
|
Celeritas Green Track School Backpack/black Logo Item Number 61005 $14.95 … |
|
|
Celeritas Mens Green Football School Backpack/black Logo Item Number 61001 $14.95 Celeritas Sports is a sports and entertainment company. The word Celeritas is a Latin-based word that can be translated as fast or speedy, an excellent match for the sports-related theme. Celeritas Sports logo is comprised of three overlapping Cs, which creates an artistic design that fits well into todays market. The three overlapping Cs is an abbreviation for Celeritas and also represents the s… |
|
|
Celeritas Sports Men’s Green Football Duffel/black Logo Item Number 60001 $19.99 Celeritas Sports is a sports and entertainment company. The word Celeritas is a Latin-based word that can be translated as fast or speedy, an excellent match for the sports-related theme. Celeritas Sports logo is comprised of three overlapping Cs, which creates an artistic design that fits well into todays market. The three overlapping Cs is an abbreviation for Celeritas and also represents the s… |
|
|
Celeritas Green Fitness Duffel/black Logo Item Number 60043 $19.99 Celeritas Sports is a sports and entertainment company. The word Celeritas is a Latin-based word that can be translated as fast or speedy, an excellent match for the sports-related theme. Celeritas Sports logo is comprised of three overlapping Cs, which creates an artistic design that fits well into todays market. The three overlapping Cs is an abbreviation for Celeritas and also represents the s… |
|
|
Celeritas Sports Green Cinch Pack with Mesh Trim/black Logo Item Number 96701 $19.99 Celeritas Sports is a new sports company. Celeritas is a Latin word, translated as “swiftness” or “speed”. It is often given as the origin of the symbol C, the universal notation for the speed of light, as popularized in Albert Einstein’s famous equation E = mc². Our logo is comprised of three overlapping C’s forming an artistic design…. |